The Z-scheme represents the linear flow of electrons from water to NADP⁺ during the light reactions of photosynthesis. This model illustrates how the energy from sunlight is used to drive the electrons' movement across the photosystems, ultimately leading to the production of ATP and NADPH. Interesting fact: The Z-scheme is named for its characteristic shape when the energy levels of the electron transport components are plotted, resembling the letter "Z."

The G₁ phase, or Gap 1 phase, is the stage of the cell cycle during which cells prepare for DNA replication. This phase precedes the S phase and is characterized by significant cellular growth and metabolic activity. Cells synthesize various RNAs and proteins necessary for DNA synthesis, which subsequently occurs in the S phase. The G₁ phase is crucial for ensuring that the cell is ready for the complex process of replicating its genome.

Cytokinesis is the division of the cell's cytoplasm, which occurs after the nucleus has divided (mitosis or meiosis). This process ensures that the cytoplasmic contents and organelles are evenly distributed between the two daughter cells, completing the cell division process. In animal cells, cytokinesis is achieved through the formation of a cleavage furrow that pinches the cell into two. In plant cells, a cell plate forms to divide the cell. Cytokinesis is essential for the physical separation of the daughter cells.

In both cell plasma membrane is made up of lipid bilayer

The S phase is not a phase of mitosis; it is a phase of the cell cycle dedicated to DNA replication. Mitosis consists of prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase, which are the stages through which a cell divides its nucleus and distributes its DNA into two daughter nuclei. The S phase occurs before mitosis, during the interphase, preparing the cell for division by duplicating its genetic material.

During the anaphase of mitosis, sister chromatids separate and are pulled towards opposite poles of the cell. This separation ensures that each daughter cell will receive an identical set of chromosomes. The movement of chromatids is facilitated by the shortening of microtubules attached to the kinetochores. Anaphase is a critical step in cell division, ensuring the equal distribution of genetic material.