Key Points

• Rainwater harvesting is a method of collecting and storing rainwater into tanks for different purposes and for future needs as well.
• Surface runoff harvesting and rooftop rainwater harvesting are the methods of rainwater harvesting.
• Collecting and storing rainwater before it lost as surface runoff promotes both water and energy conservation and Improves the quality and quantity of groundwater.

Advantages of Rain Water Harvesting:

• Provides self-sufficiency to your water supply
• Reduces the cost for pumping of groundwater
• Provides high-quality water, soft and low in minerals
• Improves the quality of groundwater through dilution when recharged to groundwater
• Reduces soil erosion in urban areas
• The rooftop rainwater harvesting is less expensive
• Rainwater harvesting systems are simple which can be adopted by individuals
• Rooftop rainwater harvesting systems are easy to construct, operate and maintain
• In hilly terrains, rainwater harvesting is preferred

Need for Rooftop Rain Water Harvesting:

• To meet the ever-increasing demand for water
• To reduce the runoff which chokes storm drains
• To avoid flooding of roads
• To augment the groundwater storage and control decline of water levels
• To reduce groundwater pollution
• To improve the quality of groundwater
• To reduce the soil erosion
• To supplement the domestic water requirement during summer, drought etc.

Black soil is made up of volcanic materials. It is also known as 'regur'  is also known as Black Cotton Soil as cotton is an important crop which is grown in this type of soil. Black soil is mostly found in the areas such as Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, and Maharashtra. 

Key Points

• Cotton is the major fiber grown on black soil.
• Cotton crops can be filled better in the black soils.
• Black or 'Regur' soil is known as Black cotton soil since cotton is a significant crop that is filled in this sort of soil.
• Black soil is wealthy in calcium carbonate, potash, lime, and magnesium carbonate yet has helpless phosphorus content.
• Black soil is considered to be the best variety of soil for the cultivation of cotton.
• Besides cotton, it is also suitable for growing cereals, oilseeds, citrus fruits and vegetables, tobacco, and sugarcane.

Hence, Cotton is grown on black soil.

The correct answer is Shifting cultivation.

Key Points 

• Milpa a type of cultivation in Mesoamerica is known as Shifting Cultivation.
  • Milpa agriculture is a form of swidden agriculture that is practiced in Mesoamerica.
  • Traditionally, a milpa plot is planted with maize, beans, and squash and might include a variety of other plants.
  • The milpa cycle calls for 2 years of cultivation and eight years of letting the area lie fallow.
• Shifting Cultivation is known as Ladang in Indonesia, Caingin in the Philippines, Milpa in Central America & Mexico,
  • Shifting cultivation is an agricultural system in which plots of land are cultivated temporarily.
  • Shifting cultivation is an agricultural system in which a person uses a piece of land, only to abandon or alter the initial use a short time later.
  • This system often involves clearing a piece of land followed by several years of wood harvesting or farming until the soil loses fertility.
  • Shifting cultivation, sometimes called swidden or slash.
• Hence, option 1 is correct.

Additional Information

• Subsistence agriculture:
  • Subsistence agriculture occurs when farmers grow food crops to meet the needs of themselves and their families on smallholdings.
  • Subsistence agriculturalists target farm output for survival and for mostly local requirements, with little or no surplus. 
  • Subsistence farming may also mean shifting farming or nomadic herding.
  • Subsistence agriculture generally features: 
    •  Small capital/finance requirements, mixed cropping, limited use of agrochemicals, the production of food crops, performed on small scattered plots of land 
• Nomadic herding:
  • Nomadic herding is a type of farming people migrate along with their animals from one place to another in search of fodder for their animals.
    • Generally, they rear cattle, sheep, goats, camels, and yaks for milk, skin, meat, and wool.
  • This way of life is common in parts of central and western Asia, India, east and southwest Africa, and northern Eurasia.
  • Pastoralists sell their animals to get products that they don't produce.
    • They also depend on the animals for food.
• Plantation agriculture:
  • Plantation agriculture is a type of commercial farming in which a single crop is grown for the entire year.
  • This type of farming requires a large amount of labor and capital.
  • The crop production may be further processed on the farm itself.
  • It is grown or in nearby factories or small scale industries.
  • The plantation covers large tracts of land, using capital intensive inputs, with the help of migrant laborers.
  • Tea, cotton, coffee, tobacco, sugarcane, sisal, some oilseeds, and rubber trees are few examples of plantation farming.

The correct answer is Intensive subsistence agriculture.

Key Points

Intensive subsistence agriculture refers to the cultivation of small plots of land by farmers, using simple tools and more labour, just to feed themselves and their families with little or no surplus trade.

Note: Other types of farming have been explained here:

CONCEPT:

• Optical fibre: It is a very thin fibre made of glass and plastic having a radius of the order of a micrometre (10^-6 m).
  • It works on the principle of Total Internal Reflection.
  • It is lightweight, fast, and useful for long-distance data and light transmission with very few losses.
  • A bundle of such thin fibres forms a light pipe.

EXPLANATION:

Optical Fibre is having a very high data-carrying capacity with very low losses.

• Nothing is faster than light in this known Universe.

The correct answer is the increase in salt concentration in an environmental medium, notable soil.

Key PointsSalinization

• Salinization is the increase of salt concentration in soil and is, in most cases, caused by dissolved salts in the water supply. Hence, statement 1 is correct.
• This supply of water can be caused by flooding of the land by seawater, seepage of seawater or brackish groundwater through the soil from below.
• Due to climate change, sea levels are rising, which further accelerates the process of salinization.
• The addition of excessive unwanted material in the soil alters the level of minerals and nutrients present in it.
• The increasing human population has led to an increase in the amount of waste generated.
• This waste when left untreated on soil increases its salinity.
• Soil salinity is also increased due to excessive use of fertilizers and improper farming techniques.

The correct answer is Mulching.

Key Points

• Mulching is a practice of covering the topsoil surface with organic materials like straw, grass, stones inorganic materials like plastics, etc.
• Contour barriers are contour strips that intercept downslope flowing water and soil particles. These barriers slow down the water movement and reduce its erosive force.
• Contour ploughing or contour farming is the farming practice of ploughing and/or planting across a slope following its elevation contour lines. These contour lines create a water break which reduces the formation of rills and gullies during times of heavy water run-off; which is a major cause of soil erosion.
• Soil mixing consists of using specially designed augers or special tools to mechanically mix the soil with in situ binders. The process simultaneously breaks up the soil without removing it.

Additional Information

The correct answer is ​Mississippi Waterway.

Key Points

The Mississippi Waterways 

• The Mississippi-Ohio waterway connects the interior part of the U.S.A. with the Gulf of Mexico in the south.
• Hence the correct answer is option 2.
• Large steamers can go through this route up to Minneapolis.

Additional Information​The Danube Waterway 

• This important inland waterway serves Eastern Europe.
• The Danube river rises in the Black Forest and flows eastwards through many countries.
• It is navigable up to Taurna Severin.
• The chief export items are wheat, maize, timber, and machinery.

Rhine Waterways 

• The Rhine flows through Germany and the Netherlands.
• Ocean-going vessels can reach up to Cologne.
• The Ruhr river joins the Rhine from the east.
• It flows through a rich coalfield and the whole basin has become a prosperous manufacturing area

 Volga Waterway 

• Russia has a large number of developed waterways, of which the Volga is one of the most important.
• The Volga-Moscow Canal connects it with the Moscow region and the Volga-Don Canal with the Black Sea.

Key Points

• The statistical study of a population is called Demography.
• It takes into account the size, distribution, density & composition of a population across a given area.
• The demography of a given geographical area depends on the number of births, deaths, age, race, ethnicity, gender, marital status, income, education, and employment.
• For example: If someone wants to gather demographic information of gender in a particular area, then the question asked should be:
• What is your gender:

1. Male
2. Female
3. Other (specify)
4. Thus, this way demographic studies are conducted.

Thus, the study related to the population is called demography.

Additional Information

• Biography: It is the life story of a person written by somebody else.
• Psychobiology: It is the branch of science that deals with the biological basis of behaviour and mental phenomena.
• Calligraphy: It is derived from Greek words 'kallos' = beauty & 'graphein' = to write. So it is the art of beautiful handwriting.

The correct answer is Computer Chip.

Key Points

• Diamonds, computer chips, and mobile manufacturing are some examples of footloose industries.
• These are generally non-polluting industries.

Footloose Industries:

• Footloose industries can be located in a wide variety of places. They are not dependent on any specific raw material, weight loss or otherwise. 
• They largely depend on component parts which can be obtained anywhere.
• They produce in small quantities and also employ a small labour force.
• The important factor in their location is accessibility by road network.

The correct answer is option 3 i.e. Marginal land.

Land Use means the different ways in which peoples utilize the land and dwell upon. this could include barren land, Forestry, Agriculture and Postureland etc.

Currently, the land use pattern in India is classified into the following categories:

Forests Area

• 23% of the reported area is notified as forest area.
• But for Tropical Countries, it is 33%.
• As per India State of Forest Report 2019 (published by Forest Survey of India), Total tree, forest cover in India increased by 5,188 sq km.
• MP has the highest forest cover. Hence option 1 is correct

Area Under Non-Agricultural Use

•  Land under Settlement, Infrastructure, Industry would lead to this category of land.
•  About 14% area falls under this category.

Barren and Waste Land                         

• Barren lands are such as hilly terrain, desert land and revines etc.    
• it can not be bought into cultivation.
• 5% of the reported areas are under this category. Hence option 4 is correct.

Permanent pasture and Grazing Land

• Most of this land comes under the Panchayat or State Government.
• 3.5 % of the reported areas are under this category. Hence option 2 is correct.

Tree Crops and Groves

• Land under Orchids and trees are under this category.
• only 1% of areas are under this category.

Culturable Waste Land

• Any land not cultivated during the last five years or more in succession falls under this category.
• It can be brought under cultivation using the reclamation process.
• 5% of the areas fall under this category

Current Fallow

• The land which is left fallow for 1 or less than 1 year falls under this category.
• About 8% of areas fall under this category.

Fallow other than Current Fallow

• Cultivable land which fallows more than 1 year and Less than 5 years fall under this category.
• About 8% of areas fall in this category.

Net Shown Area

• The total absolute value of cropped area on which crops are sown and harvested. 
•  If the same land cropped multiple time in the same year then it is counted only once.
• About 46% of areas fall in this category.

The correct answer is Firewood.

 Key Points

• Firewood is an example of a conventional source of energy. It comes under a non-commercial group of conventional energy.
• Conventional sources of energy are available in limited quantity apart from hydro-electric power.
• The conventional sources of energy are divided into two parts :
• Commercial energy sources - eg. Coal, Petroleum, Natural gas, Electricity, etc.
• Non-commercial energy sources - eg. Firewood, Straw, Dried dung, etc.
• ​Non-conventional sources of energy are freely available and are also known as renewable sources of energy.
• The examples of non-conventional sources of energy are - Solar energy, bioenergy, tidal energy, and wind energy.

Air pollution is caused by solid and liquid particles and certain gases that are suspended in the air. These particles and gases can come from car and truck exhaust, factories, dust, pollen, mold spores, volcanoes, and wildfires. The solid and liquid particles suspended in our air are called aerosols.

Important Points

 Sources of Air Pollution:

• Petroleum refineries are a major source of hazardous and toxic air pollutants such as BTEX compounds (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene).
  • They are also a major source of criteria air pollutants: particulate matter (PM), nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), and sulfur dioxide (SO2).
  • Refineries also release less toxic hydrocarbons such as natural gas (methane) and other light volatile fuels and oils.
  • Some of the chemicals released are known or suspected cancer-causing agents, responsible for developmental and reproductive problems.
  • They may also aggravate certain respiratory conditions such as childhood asthma.
• A thermal power plant is a power station that converts heat energy into electric power.
  • These power plants do this by primarily heating fossil fuels, which heats up water into steam.
  • The steam moves through a turbine, which generates the electricity, and then it is condensed and recycled back to its pre-heated starting point.
  • Whilst thermal power plants give out a lot of gases that are harmful to the environment, they also give out what is known as thermal pollution.
  • Thermal pollution is the degradation of the local environment, in particular the localized waterways, that are changed by the discharge of wastewater from the power plant.
• Burning material can cause long-term health problems.
  • The toxic chemicals released during burning include nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, volatile organic chemicals (VOCs), and polycyclic organic matter (POMs).
  • Burning plastic and treated wood also release heavy metals and toxic chemicals, such as dioxin.

Thus, we can say that Wind Turbine is not responsible for air pollution.

Additional Information Wind is caused when the earth's surface is heated unevenly by the sun. Wind energy can be used to generate electricity.

• Wind turbines, like windmills, are mounted on a tower to capture the most energy.
• At 100 feet (30 meters) or more aboveground, they can take advantage of the faster and less turbulent wind.
• Turbines catch the wind's energy with their propeller-like blades.
• Usually, two or three blades are mounted on a shaft to form a rotor.

The correct answer is Push Factor

Key PointsPush Factor

• Push factors force the individual to move voluntarily, and in many cases, they are forced because, the individual risk something if they stay.
• Push factors may include conflict, drought, famine, or extreme religious activity.
• Low economic activity and lack of job opportunities are also big push factors for migration. Other push factors include race and discriminating cultures, political intolerance, and persecution of people who question the status quo.

The correct answer is the Industrial sector.

Key Points

• The secondary is also called the Industrial sector.
• The secondary sector covers activities in which natural products are changed into other forms through manufacturing.
• And as manufacturing is associated with industries, we often refer to the secondary sector as the industrial sector.
• An example of a secondary sector activity is when a raw material like sugar is converted into sugar or gur.

 Thus, we can say that the secondary sector is also called the Industrial sector.

Additional Information

•  The other two sectors are primary and tertiary sectors.

Concept:

Seasonal migration of people:

• It is a kind of seasonal basis movement of people from one place to another in seasonal shifts for labour demand.
• It also happens during summer to escape from hits and find forage.
• It includes the migration of people with sheep, cattle and other animals.
• Human labour migration mainly happens for crop collection and food harvest.

Explanation:

Transhumance:

•  It is a seasonal movement of people who rear animals move in search of new pastures according to changes in seasons.
• This regular migration happens for livestock farming, not all people or populations travel for this migration.
• Only the animal herds and some important people travel.
• In this kind of migration, people prefer high pasturelands in the summertime and low elevation areas in the wintertime.
• In this kind of migration seasonal movement happens repeatedly every year and people go to the trails and lands which they already know.
• In transhumance the area they travel they practice temporary crop cultivation.
• It is a traditional and common migration practice all over the world, especially in western Asia and Europe.

Thus, the seasonal migration of people with their animals is known as transhumance.

 Additional Information

Nomadism:

• Nomadic herding or pastoral nomadism is a primitive subsistence activity, in which the herders rely on animals for food, clothing, shelter, tools and transport.
• They move from one place to another along with their livestock, depending on the amount and quality of pastures and water.
• Each nomadic community occupies a well-identified territory as a matter of tradition.
• This is an irregular and unpredictable movement for seeking fresh land for their herd of animals.
• They don't have any pattern in their movement so they are called nomads.
• It happens in Eurasia, Central Asia, and North Africa.

Ranching:

• This is a specialised activity in which only one type of animal is reared.
• Important animals include sheep, cattle, goats and horses.
• Commercial livestock ranching is essentially associated with western cultures and is practised on permanent ranches.
• These ranches cover large areas and are divided into a number of parcels, which are fenced to regulate grazing.
• When the grass of one parcel is grazed, animals are moved to another parcel.
• Products such as meat, wool, hides and skin are processed and packed scientifically and exported to different world markets.
• New Zealand, Australia, Argentina, Uruguay and the United States of America are important countries where commercial livestock rearing is practised.

Pastoralism:

• It is a form of animal husbandry where in a large vegetated outdoor land, livestock or domestic animal is released for grazing by nomadic people.
• The is part of agriculture that deals with animals.
• Species that involve in pastoralism are cattle, goats, horses and sheep.

The correct answer is Cyberspace.

Key Points

Cyber Space 

• Cyberspace is the world of electronic computerised space.
• It is encompassed by the Internet such as the World Wide Web (www).
• Hence the correct answer is option 2.
• It is the electronic digital world for communicating or accessing information over computer networks without the physical movement of the sender and the receiver.
• It is also referred to as the Internet.
• Cyberspace exists everywhere.
• It may be in an office, sailing boat, flying plane and virtually anywhere.

Key Points All populations change in size with time

• if births exceed deaths, the population grows
• if deaths exceed births, the population shrinks
• only when births equal deaths does the population stay the same

We can write a simple equation to show population growth as:

Change in Population Size = (Births + Immigration) - (Deaths + Emigration)

Important Points 

•  The Natural Balance refers to the difference between the number of births and the number of deaths recorded over a period. When the number of births is greater than that of deaths, it is called Natural increase. 
• Dependency Ratio is a measure of the number of dependents aged zero to 14 and over the age of 65, compared with the total population aged 15 to 64. It tells about the number of non-working people, compared to the number of those of working age.
• Net migration refers to the difference between the number of immigrants(people coming to a place) and the number of emigrants(people leaving an area) throughout a given period.
• In-Migration is the process of people moving into a new area to live there permanently.
• Out-Migration is the process of people moving out of an area  to move to another area permanently
• Birth Rate refers to the number of individuals born in a population in a given period of time. It is stated as the number of births per 1000 persons in a given year,
• Death Rate is the ratio of the number of deaths per thousand people in a given year. 

Hence the correct Demographic equation of population growth is Natural increase and Net Migration.

The correct answer is Generating nuclear power.

Key PointsUranium and Thorium

• Uranium and thorium are naturally occurring, radioactive heavy metals with unusual properties.
• The energy generated by the natural breakdown of radioactive elements is immense and can be used in nuclear reactors.

Uranium

• Uranium is a silvery-gray metallic radioactive chemical element. It is only naturally formed in supernova explosions.
• Uranium, thorium, and potassium are the main elements contributing to natural terrestrial radioactivity.
• Uranium has the chemical symbol U and atomic number 92.
• Uranium isotopes in natural uranium are 238U (99.27%) and 235U (0.72%).
• All uranium isotopes are radioactive and fissionable. But only 235U is fissile (will support a neutron-mediated chain reaction).
• Traces of Uranium are found everywhere. Commercial extraction is possible only in locations where the proportion of Uranium is adequate. There are very few such locations.

Thorium

• Thorium is a chemical element with the symbol Th and atomic number 90.
• It is one of only two significantly radioactive elements that still occur naturally in large quantities [the other being uranium].
• Thorium metal is silvery and tarnishes black when exposed to air.
• Thorium is weakly radioactive: all its known isotopes are unstable, with seven naturally occurring ones (thorium-227, 228, 229, 230, 231, 232, and 234).
• Thorium-232 is the most stable isotope of thorium and accounts for nearly all natural thorium, with the other five natural isotopes occurring only in traces.
• Thorium is estimated to be about three to four times more abundant than uranium in the Earth’s crust and is chiefly refined from monazite sands [Monazite contains 2.5% thorium][Monazite is a widely scattered on the Kerala Coast].
• Thorium is predicted to be able to replace uranium as nuclear fuel in nuclear reactors, but only a few thorium reactors have yet been completed.

The correct answer is all of the above.

Key PointsEffect of an excessive irrigation

• Increase in Saline and Alkaline Elements in Soil or Increase in Salinity. Hence, statement 2 is correct.
• The problem of Waterlogging. Hence, statement 1 is correct.
• Hindrance in Air Communication.
• Reduction in Temperature of Soil.
• The shallowness of Roots
• Marshy Land. Hence, statement 3 is correct.
• More Nitrate Formation
• Shortage of Soil Nutritive Elements and Decrease in Productivity
• Due to excessive irrigation, nutritive elements of soil flow to sub-soil, resulting in a decrease in soil productivity and deficiency in crops.
• Acidity of Soil
• Deformation comes in soil structure.
•  Attack of diseases and harmful insects.
• It encourages the process of leaching.
• The collection of other harmful salts and alkaline takes place on the surface of the soil.
• There is a decrease in the activities of living organisms.

Minerals are formed in different types of geological environments, under varying conditions.

• They are created by natural processes without any human interference. 
• Minerals can be extracted by mining, drilling, or quarrying.

Processes of mining:

The process of taking out minerals from rocks buried under the earth’s surface is called mining.

1. Open-cast mining: Minerals that lie at shallow depths are taken out by removing the surface layer; this is known as open-cast mining.
2. Shaft mining: Deep bores, called shafts, have to be made to reach mineral deposits that lie at great depths. This is called shaft mining. Petroleum and natural gas occur far below the earth’s surface.
3. Drilling: Deep wells are bored to take them out, this is called drilling.
4. Quarrying: Minerals that lie near the surface are simply dugout, by the process known as quarrying.

Hence, option 4 is the correct answer.

The correct answer is Pull factor.

Key PointsPull factor

• Pull factors are those factors in the destination country that attract the individual or group to leave their home.
• Those factors are known as place utility, which is the desirability of a place that attracts people.
• Better economic opportunities, more jobs, and the promise of a better life often pull people into new locations.
• Sometimes individuals have ideas and perceptions about places that are not necessarily correct but are pull factors for that individual.
  • As people grow older and retire, many look for locations with warm weather, peaceful and comfortable locations to spend their retirement after a lifetime of hard work and savings. Such ideal places become pull factors too.

The correct answer is 1, 2 and 4 only.

Key Points

• Soil degradation - 
  • Soil degradation is defined as a change in the soil health status resulting in a diminished capacity of the ecosystem to provide goods and services for its beneficiaries.
  • Degraded soils have a health status such, that they do not provide the normal goods and services of the particular soil in its ecosystem.
• Some of the issues associated with soil degradation are - 
  • Soil erosion - Soil erosion is the process by which soil particles and aggregates are removed and lost from their point of origin by wind or water or mass wasting from gravitational forces. Hence, statement 1 is correct.
  • Desertification - It refers to the persistent degradation of dryland ecosystems by climatic variations and human activities. Hence, statement 2 is correct.
  • Salinization - Salinization is the increase of salt concentration in soil and is, in most cases, caused by dissolved salts in the water supply. Hence, statement 4 is correct.

Important Points

• Mulching -
  • It is a practice of covering the soil surfaces with Mulch.
  • Mulch is simply a protective layer of a material that is spread on top of the soil.
  • Mulches can either be organic -- such as grass clippings, straw, bark chips, and similar materials -- or inorganic -- such as stones, brick chips, and plastic.
  • Mulches conserve the soil moisture, enhance the nutrients status of soil, control the erosion losses, suppress the weeds in crop plants, and remove the residual effects of pesticides, fertilizers, and heavy metals. Mulches improve the aesthetic value of landscapes and the economic value of crops. Hence, statement 3 is incorrect.

The correct answer is Fossil fuels.

Key Points

Non-Renewable Resources Examples

• Fossil Fuel
• Coal
• Rare earth elements
• Petroleum products
• Uranium

Thus, Fossil fuels are a non-renewable source of energy.

Additional Information 

Types of Renewable Energy

Solar Energy:

• ​The radiant light and heat energy from the sun is harnessed with the use of solar collectors.
• These solar collectors are of various types such as photovoltaics, concentrator photovoltaics, solar heating, (CSP) concentrated solar power, artificial photosynthesis, and solar architecture.
• This collected solar energy is then used to provide light, heat, and different other forms of electricity.

Wind Energy:

• The energy we get from winds is known as wind energy.
• For this, windmills have been used for hundreds of years to pump out water from the ground. We use large tall wind turbines that allow winds to generate electricity.
• The natural airflow on the surface of the earth is used to run the wind turbines.
• The most preferred locations for these wind turbines to be installed are the areas which and strong and have constant airflows on offshore and sites that are at high altitudes.

Hydroelectricity:

• According to statistics, hydroelectricity generated around 16.6% of the global energy resources and constituted about 70% of all the renewable electricity.
• This energy is another alternative source of energy that is generated by the construction of dams and reservoirs on the flowing water, the kinetic energy from the flowing water is used to run the turbines which generate electricity.
• Tidal power converts the energy of tides and Wave power which captures the energy from the surface of the ocean waves for power generation.
• These two forms of hydropower also have huge potential in electric power generation

Geothermal Energy:

• It is the energy that is generated from the thermal energy which is stored in the earth.
• The heat energy is captured on sources such as hot springs and volcanoes and this heat is directly used by industries for heating the water and other purposes.

Bio-Energy:

• This type of energy is derived from biomass which is a type of biological material derived from living organisms and plant-derived materials which are called lignocellulosic biomass.
• Biomass can be directly used via combustion to produce heat and indirectly it can be used to convert to biofuels.
• Biomass can be converted to other usable forms of energy such as transportation fuels like ethanol, biodiesel, and methane gas.

Problems of Urban Settlements 

• People flock to cities to avail of employment opportunities and civic amenities. 
• Since most cities in developing countries are unplanned, it creates severe congestion. 
• Shortage of housing, vertical expansion and growth of slums are characteristic features of modern cities of developing countries. 
• In many cities an increasing proportion of the population lives in substandard housing, e.g. slums and squatter settlements. 
• In most million plus cities in India, one in four inhabitants lives in illegal settlements, which are growing twice as fast as the rest of the cities. 
• Even in the Asia Pacific countries, around 60 per cent of the urban population lives in squatter settlements.

The correct answer is Petroleum Industry.

Key Points

• Small scale industries are industries that are mostly spread over a small, local area and do not require large equipment or extensive manufacturing procedures in the production of a commodity.
• They are 'the engine of economic growth and development of the country'.
• They constitute over 70-80% of total enterprises in most of the economies.
• It is the second-largest employment generating sector, after Agriculture in India. It provides employment to around 120 million people in India.
• MSMEs contribute around 6-7% of the manufacturing GDP and 24-25% of the GDP from the service sector.
• It contributes around 45% of the overall exports from India.

Additional Information

• The petroleum industry is a large-scale industry as it involves extensive processes of exploration, refining, transportation, and marketing.

The correct answer is Mumbai.

Important Points

• List of urban agglomerations in India as per census 2011:

• An urban agglomeration is a continuous urban spread constituting a town and its adjoining outgrowths (OGs), or two or more physically contiguous towns together with or without outgrowths of such towns.
• An Urban Agglomeration must consist of at least a statutory town and its total population should not be less than 20,000 as per the 2001 Census.
• As per census 2011, the total number of Urban Agglomerations town is 475.

Plantation Agriculture

• Plantation agriculture as mentioned above was introduced by the Europeans in colonies situated in the tropics.
• Some of the important plantation crops are tea, coffee, cocoa, rubber, cotton, oil palm, sugarcane, bananas and pineapples.
• The characteristic features of this type of farming are large estates or plantations, large capital investment, managerial and technical support, scientific methods of cultivation, single crop specialisation, cheap labour, and a good system of transportation that links the estates to the factories and markets for the export of the products.
• The French established cocoa and coffee plantations in west Africa.
• The British set up large tea gardens in India and Sri Lanka, rubber plantations in Malaysia and sugarcane and banana plantations in West Indies.
• Spanish and Americans invested heavily in coconut and sugarcane plantations in the Philippines.
• The Dutch once had a monopoly over sugarcane plantation in Indonesia. Some coffee fazendas (large plantations) in Brazil are still managed by Europeans.
• Today, ownership of the majority of plantations has passed into the hands of the government or the nationals of the countries concerned

• Collective farming or the model of Kolkhoz was introduced in the erstwhile Soviet Union to improve upon the inefficiency of the previous methods of agriculture and to boost agricultural production for self-sufficiency.
• The farmers used to pool in all their resources like land, livestock and labour. However, they were allowed to retain very small plots to grow crops in order to meet their daily requirements.
• Viticulture or grape cultivation is a speciality of the Mediterranean region. Best quality wines in the world with distinctive flavours are produced from high-quality grapes in various countries of this region. The inferior grapes are dried into raisins and currants. This region also produces olives and figs.
• The advantage of Mediterranean agriculture is that more valuable crops such as fruits and vegetables are grown in winters when there is a great demand in European and North American markets.
• Mixed Farming- This form of agriculture is found in the highly developed parts of the world, e.g. North-western Europe, Eastern North America, parts of Eurasia and the temperate latitudes of Southern continents. Mixed farms are moderate in size and usually, the crops associated with them are wheat, barley, oats, rye, maize, fodder and root crops. Fodder crops are an important component of mixed farming.
• Crop rotation and intercropping play an important role in maintaining soil fertility. Equal emphasis is laid on crop cultivation and animal husbandry. Animals like cattle, sheep, pigs and poultry provide the main income along with crops.
• Mixed farming is characterised by high capital expenditure on farm machinery and building, extensive use of chemical fertilisers and green manures and also by the skill and expertise of the farmers.

The correct answer is A-III, B - I, C - II, D - IV.

Important Points

The Masai tribes

• Maasai are semi-nomadic and pastoral: they live by herding cattle and goats.
• They inhabit in Esat African plateau/Kenya. 
• They drink cow blood on special occasions.

The Hausa tribes           

• The Hausa were known for fishing, hunting, agriculture, salt-mining, and blacksmithing. 
• They found chiefly in northwestern Nigeria and adjacent southern Niger.

The Bedouin tribes

• Bedouin Nomadic are desert-dwelling Arab people of the Middle East and followers of Islam.
• The Bedouin or Bedu is a population of nomadic Arabs who have historically inhabited the desert regions in North Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, Upper Mesopotamia and the Levant.

The Bushman tribes

• Bushman nomadic hunters, bush and food gatherers.
• They are the inhabitant of the Kalahari desert.

The correct answer is Temperate region.

Key Points

• Horticulture refers to the cultivation or processing of fruits, vegetables, ornamental plants, and flowers.
• Horticulture is mostly developed in Temperate regions of the world.
• It is well developed in the densely populated industrial areas of North-Western Europe and North-Eastern USA.

Additional Information

• The Mediterranean lands are also known as 'orchard lands of the world'.
  • The most relevant crops of this kind of system are permanent crops, such as olives, grapes, citrus, and nuts which most of their global production is located in areas with a Mediterranean climate.
  • Mediterranean agriculture is that typically found in the areas surrounding the Mediterranean Sea which have mild, wet winters and hot, dry summers.
• Major plantations are found in the tropical regions of the world.
  • Popular tropical plants for landscaping include palms, hibiscus, lily, bananas, cacao, coconuts, Rubber tree, Papaya, etc.
• Subtropical climates are often characterized by hot summers and mild winters with infrequent frost.
  •  Taxaceae, Apple, pear, pomegranate grow well in the subtropics region.

Conurbation

• The term conurbation applies to a large area of urban development that resulted from the merging of originally separate towns or cities. 
• Greater London, Manchester, Chicago and Tokyo are examples.

The correct answer is All of these.

Key Points

• Agro-Based Industries:
  • These are the industries that depend on agricultural products for raw materials to produce new products.
  • Agro-based products in India include textiles, paper, sugar, vegetable oil, etc.
  • The textile industry is the largest in India.
  • Accounting for about 20% of the country's industrial output.

Additional Information

• ​Silk Textile -
  • In this trade too, India is the second-largest producer of natural silk after China.
  • The silk textile industry of India is classified under agro-based industry.
  • India is the only country where all the 5 types of silk Mulberry, Muga, Tropical, and Temperate Tasar are produced and woven.
• Sugar Industry -
  • India is the second largest producer of sugar in the world.
  • Sugar production in India has seen a growth of 14.4% (between October 2020 and May 2021).
  • The sugar industry also helps the paper industry with a by-product called bagasse.

Landslide is the most common natural disaster or calamity in the hilly terrains of India.

Important Points

Landslides:

• Landslides are a type of mass waste that occurs when rock and soil flow downslope under the direct impact of gravity.
• Landslides are among the major natural disasters or calamities in the world.
• In hilly terrains of India, including Himalayan mountains landslides have been a major and widely spread natural disaster that strikes life and property almost perennially and occupies a position of major concern.
• These landslides, year after year, bring about untold misery to human settlements apart from causing devastating damages to transportation and communication network.
• Landslides, debris fall, debris slide, debris flow, rock toppling, etc. cause destruction of slope and ground surface, initiating the change of uncontrolled erosion in the mountain terrains

The correct answer is Perth to Sydney.

Key Points

Railways 

• Australia has about 40,000 km of railways, of which 25 per cent are found in New South Wales alone.
• The west-east Australian National Railway line runs across the country from Perth to Sydney.
• Hence the correct answer is option 3.
• New Zealand’s railways are mainly in the North Island to serve the farming areas.
• Only Chile, among the remaining countries, has a considerable route length linking coastal centres with the mining sites in the interior.
• Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Colombia and Venezuela have short single-track rail lines from ports to the interior with no inter-connecting links.
• There is only one trans-continental rail route linking Buenos Aires (Argentina) with Valparaiso (Chile) across the Andes Mountains through the Uspallatta.

Conventional sources of energy:

• The conventional sources of energy are generally non-renewable sources of energy, which are being used for a long time.
• These sources of energy are being used extensively in such a way that their known reserves have been depleted to a great extent.

The advantages of the conventional source of energy are:

• They are widely accessible and hence contribute most to energy production.
• They find both commercial and industrial purposes
• They are the basis of many industries. For example, fossil fuels are the basis of the functioning of many petrochemicals and other related industries.
• They are more efficient in terms of energy conversion.

The disadvantages of the conventional source of energy are:

• They are the main reason for the pollution.
• The major problem while using conventional sources especially fossil fuels is that they are exhaustible sources

The correct answer is None of the above.

Key PointsRural-urban migration

• Migrant - A person, whose last usual place of residence was different from the present place of enumeration on the date of inquiry has been considered a migrant.
• Population flow from rural to urban areas is caused by many factors, like
  • high demand for labor in urban areas, Hence, option 1 is correct.
  • low job opportunities in rural areas and Hence, option 2 is correct.
  • an unbalanced pattern of development between urban and rural areas. Hence, option 3 is correct.

• In India, the population in cities is rapidly increasing.
  • Due to low opportunities in smaller and medium cities, the poor people generally bypass these small cities and directly come to the mega cities for their livelihood.

The correct answer is Seaways.

• Seaways are the cheapest mode of service.
  • The amount of loading and unloading goods is much cheaper if it has to travel a long distance.

Key Points

• Roadways are the most commonly used means of transport, especially for short-distance travel.
  • Roads may be metalled or unmetalled.
  • There is a dense network of roads in the plains.
  • Roads can be built in deserts, high mountains, and forests too.
  • Roads built underground are called subways or under paths.
• Railways are economical and faster.
  • Steam engines have been replaced by diesel and electrical engines. 
  • Railway network is well developed in plain areas.
  • It is present in hilly terrain too, but not as much as in the plain areas.
• Inland waterways
  • ​Navigable rivers and lakes are used as inland waterways.
  • The Great Lakes in North America, the Ganga – Brahmaputra river system, and the river Nile in Africa are some of the important inland waterways.
• Seaways
  • ​These are the oceanic routes and used for transporting goods from one country to another.
  • These routes are connected with the ports.
  • Some of the important ports in Asia are Mumbai and Singapore, New York, Los Angeles in North America, Rio de Jenario in South America, and Sydney in Australia.

Additional Information

• Airways 
  • ​It is the most expensive mode due to the high cost of fuel.
  • It is vulnerable to bad weather like fog and storms.
  • It is the only mode to reach even the most distant and remote locations which do not have a road/rail network.

Key Points

Nomadic hardening:

• Nomadic herding is practiced in the semi-arid and arid regions of Sahara, Central Asia, and some parts of India, like Rajasthan and Jammu, and Kashmir.
• In this type of farming, herdsmen move from place to place with their animals for fodder and water, along with defined routes.
• This type of movement arises in response to climatic constraints and terrain.
• Sheep, camel, yak, and goats are most commonly reared.
• They provide milk, meat, wool, hides, and other products to the herders and their families.
• It is also known as Nomadic pastoralism which is a form of pastoralism when livestock are herded in order to seek fresh pastures on which to graze.
• The herded livestock include cattle, water buffalo, yaks, llamas, sheep, goats, reindeer, horses, donkeys or camels, or mixtures of species.

Hence, in the case of nomadic hardening, the herdsmen move from place to place with their animals for fodder and water.

The correct answer is Stockton and Darlington.

Key Points

Land Transport 

• Most of the movement of goods and services takes place over land.
• In the early days, humans themselves were carriers.
• The revolution in transport came about only after the invention of the steam engine in the eighteenth century.
• Perhaps the first public railway line was opened in 1825 between Stockton and Darlington in northern England and then onwards, railways became the most popular and fastest form of transport in the nineteenth century.
• Hence the correct answer is option 3.
• It opened up continental interiors for commercial grain farming, mining and manufacturing in the U.S.A.
• The invention of the internal combustion engine revolutionized road transport in terms of road quality and vehicles (motor cars and trucks) plying over them.

Slum population in India based on the 2001 Census confined to cities and towns having more than 50,000 populations. Subsequently, towns with populations between 20,000 and 50,000 were also considered slum populations.

• National Sample Survey Office (NSSO) is the nodal authority in the country to conduct major socio-economic surveys. So far NSSO has conducted five surveys on slums, which provide data on the estimated number of slums, households, basic amenities in slums, etc. The NSSO collects data on slums as part of its survey on Housing Conditions and Slums.
• Urbanization is on the rise according to the United Nations 2014. Globally, more people live in urban areas than in rural areas. The urban population of the world has grown rapidly since 1950.

Census-2011

• A total of 65.49 million population in slums of 2613 cities/towns spread across 31 States and Union Territories of India.
• The non-slum population was 311.61 million. The slum population enumerated constitutes 5.4 percent of the total population of the country.
• The slum population constitutes 17.4 percent of the total urban population of all the States and Union Territories. The slum population enumerated was 22.4 percent of the total population of the 2613 statutory towns (including 19 Census Towns in NCT of Delhi and 1(one) in Uttar Pradesh) reporting slums.

Additional Information

Due to deforestation and pollution, forest cover areas are decreasing day by day. Industrialization and urbanization decrease the agricultural land cover, rural areas, and forest area.  

Therefore, we may say that Slum is grown rapidly, especially during the last four or five decades.

Mediterranean Agriculture

• Mediterranean agriculture is highly specialised commercial agriculture.
• It is practised in the countries on either side of the Mediterranean sea in Europe and in north Africa from Tunisia to Atlantic coast, southern California, central Chile, south western parts of South Africa and south and south western parts of Australia.
• This region is an important supplier of citrus fruits.
• Viticulture or grape cultivation is a speciality of the Mediterranean region. Best quality wines in the world with distinctive flavours are produced from high quality grapes in various countries of this region. The inferior grapes are dried into raisins and currants. This region also produces olives and figs.
• The advantage of Mediterranean agriculture is that more valuable crops such as fruits and vegetables are grown in winters when there is great demand in European and North American markets.

Co-operative Farming

• A group of farmers forms a co-operative society by pooling in their resources voluntarily for more efficient and profitable farming. Individual farms remain intact and farming is a matter of cooperative initiative.
• Co-operative societies help farmers, to procure all important inputs of farming, sell the products at the most favourable terms and help in the processing of quality products at cheaper rates.
• The co-operative movement originated over a century ago and has been successful in many western European countries like Denmark, Netherlands, Belgium, Sweden, Italy etc.

Plantation Agriculture

• Plantation agriculture as mentioned above was introduced by the Europeans in colonies situated in the tropics.
• Some of the important plantation crops are tea, coffee, cocoa, rubber, cotton, oil palm, sugarcane, bananas and pineapples.
• The characteristic features of this type of farming are large estates or plantations, large capital investment, managerial and technical support, scientific methods of cultivation, single crop specialisation, cheap labour, and a good system of transportation which links the estates to the factories and markets for the export of the products.

Market Gardening 

• Market gardening and horticulture specialise in the cultivation of high value crops such as vegetables, fruits and flowers, solely for the urban markets.
• Farms are small and are located where there are good transportation links with the urban centre where high income group of consumers is located. It is both labour and capital intensive and lays emphasis on the use of irrigation, HYV seeds, fertilisers, insecticides, greenhouses and artificial heating in colder regions

• Human Environmental Interactions can be defined as interactions between the human social system and (the “rest” of) the ecosystem. 
• The most comprehensive approach to address the problems of man-environment interaction is Natural Resource Conservation Approach.

​

1. Sustainable natural resources conservation is a process of rational use and skilful management and preservation of the natural environment with all its resources.
2. Integrated environmental education can provide knowledge that is useful in the sustainable management of natural resources. 
3. All human efforts towards development are based upon the presence of natural resources.
4. Although the earth has continued to support life for thousands of years, today it is facing serious environmental challenges which are a result of human impact and this is a threat to life support systems. This is a potential ecological disaster.
5. There are several ways to conserve natural resources in your very own home, such as: Use less water. Taking shorter showers or turning off the faucet while brushing your teeth can reduce water waste in your home.
6. Economics provides a model for the sustainable use of renewable natural resources in the form of management tools, such as taxes, quotas, grants, subsidies, standards, licences, permits, property rights, and market rights.

Therefore Option 1 is the correct answer.

​

Urban-industrial Growth Oriented Approach:

• The Urban-industrial growth-oriented approach is also known as a top-down strategy.
• These macro economic approaches emphasized the concentration of investment in the largest urban centres in order to maximize the growth of national output.

Watershed Development Approach:

• The Watershed development approach is based on participatory planning following a bottom-up approach for developing a context-appropriate plan for execution; empowerment and employment of people through the establishment and strengthening of the local level institution.
• Watershed development aims to balance the conservation, regeneration and use by humans of land and water resources within a watershed.
• Common benefits from successful watershed development projects include improved agricultural yields and increased access to drinking water.

The correct answer is It causes several environmental issues.

Key PointsWaste burning

• Waste burning is a significant source of dangerous carcinogens like dioxins and furans, and black carbon, a short-lived climate pollutant that contributes to climate change, increased melting in polar regions due to the deposition of soot and black carbon on snow and ice, and numerous human health issues.
• Burning prohibited materials, such as garbage, plastic, and painted or treated wood, is harmful to the environment because these materials release toxic chemicals that pollute our air.
• Polluted air can be inhaled by humans and animals, and deposited in the soil and surface water and on plants.
• Open waste burning releases significant amounts of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.
  • Such compounds include carbon dioxide, methane and particulate matter, which are typically associated with air pollution and can lead to severe cases of respiratory disease.
• Burning rubbish (waste) is not an acceptable practice because it produces a lot of pollution and is hazardous to both the environment and creatures from an environmental and health standpoint.

The correct answer is Khadins/Johads

Key PointsKhadins/Johads

• Khadins and Johads are rain-fed storage structures built in Rajasthan. 
• Agricultural fields were converted into rain-fed storage structures in Semi-arid and arid regions.
• These structures allowed water to stand and moisten the soil.
• These structures are known as ‘Johads’ in parts of Rajasthan and ‘Khadins’ in Jaisalmer of Rajasthan.

Additional Information

• In Rajasthan, to store drinking water, the common practice employed is rooftop rainwater harvesting. 
• To use water for agriculture purposes, in Western Himalayas ‘kuls’ or ‘guls’ were built. These are diversion channels in hilly and mountainous regions.
• To irrigate fields, inundation channels were built by people in the flood plains of Bengal.

The correct answer is Steel and cast Iron.

Key Points
Ferrous Metal 

• Ferrous metals refer to any metal that contains iron. They are favored for their tensile strength and durability, so are often utilized in housing construction, large-scale piping, and industrial containers.
• Ferrous metals may include a lot of different alloying elements. Some examples are chromium, nickel, molybdenum, vanadium, and manganese. Those give ferrous steel material properties that make them widely used in engineering. 
• A list of ferrous metal properties:
  • Durable
  • Great tensile strength
  • Usually magnetic
  • Low resistance to corrosion
  • A silver-like color
  • Recyclable
  • Good conductors of electricity
  • These qualities make them usable in the construction of long-lasting skyscrapers. On top of that, they are utilized in making tools, vehicle engines, pipelines, containers, automobiles, cutlery, etc.

Ferrous Metals Examples

• Steel: Renowned for its toughness and machinability, steel is widely used in the construction and manufacturing industries.\
• Cast Iron: Hard and resistant to wear, cast iron is perfect for use in a variety of applications from cookware to water pipes and machine tools.
• Wrought Iron: Slightly different to most other ferrous metals, wrought iron resists corrosion and oxidation. It is frequently used for fencing and railing.

The correct answer is ​Monocropping.

Key Points

• Monocropping:
  • Monocropping is when the field is used to grow only one crop season after season.
• ​Disadvantages of Monocropping:
  • ​Decreases biodiversity:
    • ​Monocultures are based on eliminating the biodiversity of plants or animals on a piece of land. 
    • That’s the key principle. That’s what makes monocultures appealing.
  • It encourages pests due to the cultivation process or cultivation of only one type of crop or animal species.
  • Destroys nutrients in the soil:
    • The soil contains nutrients and other functions.
    • Monocultures exclude all these functions due to the cultivation process or cultivation of only one type of crop or animal species.
  • Soil degradation and soil erosion:
    • The excessive use of chemical fertilizers in monoculture also damages the health of the soil. 
    • When crops are harvested, there is no natural soil protection from erosion caused by wind and rain. In addition, the soil surface layer does not regenerate, which is the main cause of erosion.
  • Groundwater Pollution:
    • Even if the plants are harvested, the chemical remains in the soil. 
    • Since they are inorganic, soil microorganisms cannot convert them into organic materials.

Additional Information

The correct answer is Primary.

Key Points

• Primary activity: Primary activities are directly dependent on the environment as these refer to the utilization of the earth’s resources such as land, water, vegetation, building materials, and minerals.
  • People engaged in primary activities are called red-collar workers due to the outdoor nature of their work.
  • ​Example: Hunting and gathering, pastoral activities, fishing, forestry, agriculture, and mining and quarrying, lumbering.

Additional Information

Key Points

Growth of population: Population growth is the increase in the number of individuals in a population. India’s annual increase in population is large enough to neutralize efforts to conserve the resource endowment and environment. It depends on the following factors.

Changes in Population:

• There are three main processes of change of population: birth rates, death rates, and migration.
• The natural increase of population is the difference between birth rates and death rates.

Birth rate:

• The birth rate is the number of live births per thousand persons in a year.
• It is a major component of growth because, in India, birth rates have always been higher than death rates.

Death rate:

• The death rate is the number of deaths per thousand persons in a year.
• The main cause of the rate of growth of the Indian population has been the rapid decline in death rates.
• Till 1980, high birth rates and declining death rates led to a large difference between birth rates and death rates resulting in higher rates of population growth.
• Since 1981, birth rates have also started declining gradually, resulting in a gradual decline in the rate of population growth.
• The rapid decline in population due to the high mortality rate is the Population crash.

Migration:

• The third component of population growth is migration.
• Migration is the movement of people across regions and territories.
• Migration can be internal (within the country) or international (between the countries)

Important Points

Literacy rate:

• The literacy rate of the population is defined as the percentage of literates to the total population aged 7 years and above who can read, write and understand any one language.
• The results of the 2011 census revealed that there has been an increase in literacy in the country. 
• The literacy rate in the country is 74.04 percent, 82.14 for males and 65.46 for females.
• Kerala retained its position by being on top with a 93.91 percent literacy rate, closely followed by Lakshadweep (92.28 percent) and Mizoram (91.58 percent).
• Bihar with a literacy rate of 63.82 percent ranks last in the country preceded by Arunachal Pradesh (66.95 percent) and Rajasthan (67.06 percent).

Hence, the literacy rate is not an indicator of change in the population of a place.

In most of the Indian big cities, the dominant source of air pollution is vehicular traffic.

Air pollution:

1. Air pollution is the modification of the air by mixing with some particles and gases that are injurious to health and wealth which is undesirable
2. Air pollution is a common phenomenon nowadays with the advancement of technology
3. It is dominated in urban areas more than rural areas.

Causes of air pollution:

1. Vehicular pollution: transport sector is the major cause behind originating dust and smoke in city regions
2. Industrial emissions: emission of industrial waster like ashes, dust, gases, smoke, etc.
3. Thermal power plants: fly ash and black smoke after burning coal is a cause of making layer in the lower atmosphere which causes urban heat island or virtual desert situation
4. Burning of fossil fuel: burning of coal for domestic purposes and use of petrol and diesel also cause pollution
5. Construction dust: it is another source of aerosol particles
6. Waste burning: waste burning produces a huge amount of CO₂ 
7. Use of cheap and dirty fuels such as wood and cow-dung for cooking.

The above diagram presents the percentage share of different sources of air pollution in a city. 

The correct answer is Delhi

Key PointsCarbon Footprint

• A carbon footprint is the total amount of Greenhouse Gases – GHGs (especially carbon dioxide and methane) released into the atmosphere by different human activities.
• According to the World Health Organization (WHO), a carbon footprint is a measure of the impact people’s activities have on the amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) produced through the burning of fossil fuels and is expressed as the weight of CO₂ emissions produced in tonnes.
• The carbon footprint is seen as a subset of the ecological footprint,
  • where carbon footprint deals with resource usage but focuses strictly on the greenhouse gases released due to the burning of fossil fuels, while the latter compares the total resources people consume with the land and water area that is needed to replace those resources. 

The release of Six Greenhouse gases as recognized by the Kyoto Protocol will be counted in the carbon footprint. The Six GHGs are –

• Carbon dioxide (CO₂)
• Methane (CH₄)
• Nitrous Oxide (N₂O)
• Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)
• Perfluorocarbon (PFCs)
• Sulphur hexafluoride (SF₆)
• The national capital region of Delhi has the highest annual carbon footprint in the country. In fact, Delhi's annual CO₂ emission of 69.4 million tonnes is equal to the CO₂ emission of Bengaluru, Hyderabad and Chennai put together.