Explanation-

The arrangement ABC ABC ABC refers to Cubic close packing (ccp).

Additional Information

Explanation:-

Haemoglobin:-

• Hb is a protein present in red blood cells that transport oxygen throughout the body and give blood its red colour.
• The amount of haemoglobin in a person's blood varies.
• Men's levels are frequently higher than women's.
• Iron deficiency anaemia is defined as low haemoglobin induced by low iron levels.
• Low haemoglobin is most commonly caused by a lack of iron in your diet.
• Headaches, weariness, and pale complexion are all signs of low haemoglobin.
• Iron supplements, iron therapy, and surgery are all options for treating low haemoglobin.
• Blood haemoglobin is positively charged.
• It's found within the red blood cell.
• The red blood cell membrane is negatively charged.
• Haemoglobin, metal hydroxides, basic dyes, and other positively charged sols are examples.

Additional InformationAcid dye eosin:- 

• In histology, eosin is the most commonly used dye to stain the cytoplasm.
• It's an acidic dye that binds to the cell's basic components, primarily proteins in the cytoplasm.
• It produces a brilliant pink colour that contrasts with the nuclear hematoxylin staining, which is dark blue.

CdS:-

• Cadmium sulphide, abbreviated as CdS, is an inorganic chemical.
• Cadmium sulphide is a solid that is yellow in colour.
• It has two different crystal forms in nature.

Gold Sol:-

• Because a large number of molecules mix to produce colloidal particles, gold sol is a multimolecular colloid.
• It's a lyophobic, negatively charged sol.

Explanation:-

Forms of Carbon:-

• Amorphous carbon, graphite, and diamond are the three most well-known allotropes of carbon.
• Fullerenes, which include buckyballs, carbon nanotubes, carbon nanobuds, and nanofibers, were once regarded exotic but are now frequently manufactured and employed in research.
• C₆₀ is a 60-carbon atom molecule with 12 pentagons and 20 hexagons organised in a hexagonal pattern.
• The shape is similar to that of a soccer ball: the pentagons are black, while the hexagons are white.
• The early applications of carbon 60 were in nanotechnology and electronics.
• Carbon 60 has recently sparked attention in medicine.
• Carbon 60 has been used to treat acne, ageing skin, and other skin problems, but there is no good scientific evidence to back up any of these claims.
• Our findings demonstrate a broad mechanism by which C₆₀ induces DNA/RNA damage or other harmful consequences on a systemic level, implying that these nanomaterials should be handled with caution in a variety of medicinal applications.
• Buckminsterfullerene has the formula C60 and is a kind of fullerene.
• It resembles a soccer ball and features a cage-like fused-ring construction comprised of twenty hexagons and twelve pentagons.
• There are three bonds between each carbon atom.
• It's a black solid that turns violet when dissolved in hydrocarbon liquids.
• It is made by vaporizing carbon in a laboratory.
• This vaporized form of carbon becomes free to create new bonds under certain conditions, resulting in a soccer ball shape.

Additional Information

Explanation-

Empirical formula-

• The empirical formula is the simplest formula for a compound which is defined as the ratio of subscripts of the smallest possible whole number of the elements present in the formula. It is also known as the simplest formula.

→ A cube has 8 corners and 6 faces

→ Each Atom at the corner contributes 1/8 of itself to a particular cubic crystal lattice.

8 atoms × 1/8 = 1 Atom ( at corners)

→ Each Atom at a face center contributes 1/2 of itself to a particular cubic crystal lattice.

6 atoms × 1/2 = 3 atoms

Given data and Calculation-

→ "A" atoms at the corner of the cube.

→ Effective number of atoms of A = $\frac{1}{8}$× 8 = 1 

→ B ions on the centers of the faces of the cube.

→ For B, 1 atom contributes to two cells.

→ the effective number of atoms of B = $\frac{1}{2}$ × 6 = 3

So the formula will be AB₃.

Explanation:-​

First Order Reaction:

The rate equation for the first-order reaction is dependent on the concentration of only one reactant.

The rate equation is:

⇒ $\ln [A]-\ln [A_0]=-kt$

where [A] is the conc at time t, [A0] is the initial concentration

Given,

t1/2 = 10 hours

→ The total reduction in the concentration from 0.05 mol /L to 0.25 mol / L, thus

t3/4 = 20 hours

t3/4  = 2 x t1/2 , this condition comes under first-order reaction.

→ - kt = ln([S]/[S]₀)

As [S]/[S]₀ = 0.05/0.10 = 0.5

→ - k (10 hr) = ln (0.5)

→ - k (10 × 60 × 60 sec) = ln (0.5)

→ k = 1.9 × 10-5 s-1

Explanation:-

Molarity:- 

• The moles of a solute per liter of a solution is molarity.
• The molar concentration of a solution is also known as molarity.

The molarity of diluted solution may be calculated as

⇒M₁ V₁  =  M₂ V₂  

⇒13.6 M x  1 mL = M X  300 mL  ⇒

⇒ M = 13.6 M x 1mL / 300 mL   = 4.54 x 10^-2

⇒ HCl → H⁺ + Cl^- 

⇒ pH = - log [H⁺]  = - log [4.54 x 10-2] 

⇒ pH = log (4.54) - 2 x log 10

⇒ pH = - (2 - 0.657) = -(1.346)  = 1.346.

Explanation:

Faraday 2nd Law:

→ The amounts of different substances liberated by the same quantity of electricity passing through the electrolytic solution are proportional to their chemical equivalent weights (Atomic Mass of Metal Number of electrons required to reduce the cation).

∴  $\frac{W_1}{W_2}=\frac{Eq.w{t}_1}{Eq.w{t}_2}$

Equivalent of Hydrogen = 1

The equivalent weight of Copper = 63.55/2 (CuSO₄ solution)

So  the equation is as follows: 

→  $\frac{0.504}{W_2}=\frac{1}{63.55/2}$ 

→ $W_2=\frac{63.55\times 0.504}{2}=16.0146g$ 

∴ 16 grams of copper can be liberated by the same current flowing for the same time in a copper sulphate solution

Explanation:-

→ We know equivalent conductance depends upon ionic mobility, and ionic mobility depends upon the size of the ion.

So the ionic size in the case of hydrated cations will be

K⁺ > Na⁺ > Li⁺ 

→ Hence the smaller the ion more will be the hydration, in a similar way the bigger the hydrated cation more will be the equivalent conductance.

Hence the correct option is 2

Cations have the same charge but different sizes.

Smaller cations are more heavily hydrated in aqueous solution giving a larger hydrated radius and thus smaller ionic speeds and equivalent conductance.

∴ Order of equivalent conductances is KCI > NaCI > LiCI

Explanation:  

→ The reaction is happening at the cathode, which means it is depositing a metal by gaining an electron.

→ Let's assume that n Faraday of charge is depositing 1mole of metal.

So the weight given to us is 177g of metal.

Now the charge we have is given by,

Q = I × t

Where,

"i" is current, "t" is time in seconds

Q is the charge

= 2 × 5 × 60 × 60 (convert in seconds) this comes to

= 36000 C (coulomb)

So 36000 C of charge deposits 177g divided by n Faraday i.e n × 96500 C × 36000 C

→ $\frac{177g}{n\times 96000c}\times 36000c\equiv 22gofmetal$ 

→  so $n=\frac{177g\times 36000c}{22g\times 96000c}=3.01$ 

Hence the correct answer is option 3

Explanation:

→ Below is the Diagram of the electrolytic cells

As we very well know that oxidation potential of H₂O is greater than SO4^2-

So oxidation of H₂O occurs at the anode and gives O₂ gas.​ 

Explanation:

→ An aqueous solution of H2SO4 on electrolysis will give us 2H+ ions and SO42- ions.

→ As it is a dilute solution that means there is H2O present which will give us H+ ions & OH- ions, so the total ions involved are sulfate, hydroxide, and H+ ions.

→ As we want to know which gas evolved at the anode, and we know at anode oxidation is going to happen, so the negatively charged ions will go to the anode and get discharged. 

→ Now there is competition between OH- and SO2-4 and according to the electrochemical series, the oxidation potential of H2O is greater than SO2-4.

→ According to the preferential discharge concept 4OH- ions lead to the liberation of 2H2O +O2 +4e- and H+ ions go to the cathode and liberate hydrogen gas,

So according to the question the gas liberated at the anode is O2

Explanation-

 → All these crystal structures have a basic cubic shape, the difference lies in the way atoms are arranged in them. All lattices have atoms present at the vertices of the cubic unit.

→ In FCC, atoms are present at the centre of each face of the cubic unit.

→ In BCC, only one atom is present at the very centre of the cubic unit.

→ In a simple cubic unit, the only atom involved is the ones at the vertices.

→ Simple cubic unit-

• Atoms are present at the vertices of each cubic unit. These vertices lie at the centre of each atom.
• Due to the continuous and repetitive nature of crystals, each atom is shared by 8 such cubic units.
• Each atom contributes 1/8 parts of its volume to the cubic unit, with 8 such atoms at 8 vertices, the effective volume of one atom is present inside a cubic unit.

 Each edge is shared by the radii of 2 atoms. Thus, the equation for this unit will be a =2r

→ FCC unit-

• Atoms are present at the 8 vertices of the cubic unit just like the simple cubic unit. Atoms will contribute 1/8 parts of their total volume. The difference here is that an atom is present at the centre of each face of the cubic unit.
• The centre of the atom will lie on the centre of the face. This atom will contribute 1/2 parts of its volume to the unit.
• Considering 6 such atoms present on each of the faces, the effective volume of atoms contained in the FCC unit will be worth 4 atoms; 3 from the atoms on the faces and one from the atoms at the vertices.

a = $2\sqrt{2}r$

→ BCC unit-

• Here, 8 atoms are present at 8 vertices of the cube and contribute a volume of 1 atom. Here the atom is present at the centre of the cubic unit and does not share its volume with any other cubic unit. It contributes its total volume to the unit. The effective volume of atoms present in the BCC lattice is 2 atoms. The centre of this atom lies in the centre of the cube.

a = $\frac{4r}{\sqrt{3}}$

So the correct answer is option 1.

Explanation-

→ Free ions participate in good electric conduction.

The availability of free ions increases the conductivity.

Given Solid: NaCl

→ Solid NaCl is a bad conductor of electricity because the charged particles (ions) in solid NaCl are not capable of moving as they are bound by strong electrostatic forces. 

As a result, they can not conduct electricity.

→ However, in water ions are capable of moving when NaCl is dissolved in it and hence conduct electricity.

→ When NaCl is dissolved in water Na+ and Cl- ions are capable of moving. They become free in a molten state, hence they can conduct electricity.

→ Solid NaCl has charged particles i.e ions namely Na⁺ and Cl^-.

→ The charged particles (ions) in solid NaCl are not capable of moving as they are bound by strong electrostatic forces. As a result, they can not conduct electricity. 

Concept:

First-order kinetics:

• The rate equation for the first-order reaction is dependent on the concentration of only one reactant.
• The rate equation of the decay is :

$\ln [A]-\ln [A_0]=-kt$, where [A] is the conc at time t, [A0] is the initial concentration

The half-life will be given by:

$t_{\frac{1}{2}}=\frac{.693}{k}$ where k = rate constant

Calculation:

Given:

• Half-life period = 6.93 mins
• The extent of completion of the reaction: 99%
• Final concentration = 1% of initial value

We know.

$t_{\frac{1}{2}}=\frac{.693}{k}$

$k=\frac{.693}{t_{\frac{1}{2}}}=\frac{.693}{6.93}=.1/min$

Let the final concentration be [A] and the initial concentration is  [A0] and t be the time after the reaction is 99% completed.

[A] = 1% of  [A0] 

$[A]=\frac{1}{100}[A_0]$

$[A]=.01[A_0]$

Substituting this value in the rate equation,

$\ln [A]-\ln [A_0]=-kt$

$\ln [.01A_0]-\ln [A_0]=-kt$

$\ln [.01A_0]-\ln [A_0]=-.1t$

$t=\frac{\ln .01}{.1}=\frac{4.605}{.1}=46.05min$

Hence, the time required for the completion of 99% of the chemical reaction is 46.06 mins.

Explanation:

Langmuir isotherm:

• The process of adsorption of molecules per site on the surface can be represented as:

A(g) + M (surface) → AM

• Let θ be the fraction of the surface area covered. At equilibrium, the rate of adsorption is equal to the rate of desorption.

Hence, 

k_ap_a(1 - θ ) = k_dθ, Where Ka and K_d are the rate constants for absorption and desorption respectively.

θ = $\frac{k{p}_A}{1+k{p}_A}$

• The rate of adsorption is proportional to the pressure of gas A.
• This equation is called Langmuir adsorption isotherm.

Hence, in Langmuir isotherm, the mass of gas striking a given area of the surface is proportional to the pressure of the gas.

• At low pressures, kP_A <<< 1, so that θ = kP_a.
• It means that the fraction of the surface covered is directly proportional to the partial pressure of the gas molecules, i.e, it is a first-order reaction.
• At high pressures, kp_A >>> 1, so that θ = 1, it means that the entire surface gets covered by a monolayer of the gas and the reaction rate is independent of the pressure of the gas.
• Langmuir adsorption applies to ideal cases of chemisorption on a perfectly smooth surface with no interactions between adsorbed molecules.

Explanation:-

Molar Conductance:-

• Molar conductance is the conductance property of a solution containing one mole of electrolyte or a function of a solution's ionic strength or salt concentration. As a result, it is not a constant.

We know,

⇒∧° m(BaCl2) →  ∧° m(Ba²⁺)  +  2 ∧° m(Cl^-)   --- [1]

⇒∧° m (NaOH) →  ∧° m (Na⁺) +  ∧° m (OH^-)   ---- [2]

⇒∧° m (NaCl)  →  ∧° m (Na⁺)  +∧° m (Cl^-)   ---- [3]

For the reaction -  Ba²⁺  + 2 OH^-  → Ba(OH)₂ , 

⇒ Eq [1] +  2 × Eq [3] - 2 × Eq [2]

⇒ ∧° m(BaCl2) →  ∧° m(Ba2+)  +  2 ∧° m(Cl-)    + 2 x ∧° m (NaCl)  →  ∧° m (Na+)  +∧° m (Cl-)   - 2 x ∧° m (NaOH) →  ∧° m (Na+) +  ∧° m (OH-) 

⇒ (∧° m) for Ba(OH)₂ =  280.0 × 10-4 S m2mol^-1 + 2 x 248.1 × 10-4 S m2mol-1  - 2 x  126.5 × 10-4 S m2mol-1.

∴ (∧° m) for Ba(OH)2 = 523.5 × 10^-4 S m2mol-1.

Concept:

Adsorption:

• Adsorption is defined as the deposition of molecular species onto the surface.
• The molecular species that gets adsorbed on the surface is known as Adsorbent and the surface on which adsorption occurs is known as Adsorbate.
• It is a surface phenomenon and occurs due to the unsaturation of forces on the surface of an adsorbate molecule.

​

There are two types of adsorption:

a) Physical or physisorption where there exist only weak van der Waals forces between adsorbent and adsorbate. 

Characteristic of physisorption:

• Lack of specificity
• Nature of adsorbate
• Reversible Nature
• Surface area of the adsorbent
• Enthalpy of adsorption

b) Chemical or chemisorption where new bonds are formed between adsorbent and adsorbate.

Concept:

• Freundlich adsorption is applicable for physical adsorption.
• Freundlich expressed an empirical equation for representing the isothermal variation of adsorption of a quantity of gas adsorbed by unit mass of solid adsorbent with pressure.
• This equation is known as Freundlich Adsorption Isotherm or Freundlich Adsorption equation or simply Freundlich Isotherm.

$\frac{x}{m}=k{P}^{\frac{1}{n}}$

Where,

→ x/m = adsorption per gram of adsorbent which is obtained by dividing the amount of adsorbate (x) by the weight of the adsorbent (m).

→ P is Pressure, k and n are constants whose values depend upon adsorbent and gas at particular temperature.

• Adsorbate is defined as the substance which is being adsorbed on the surface of another substance is called adsorbate. 
• Adsorbent is defined as the substance present in bulk, on the surface of which adsorption is taking place is called adsorbent.

The given Freundlich adsorption isotherm equation is

$\frac{x}{m}=\mathrm{k}{\mathrm{p}}^{0.5}$

The value of x/m is increasing with increase in p but as n > 1 it does not increase suddenly.

This curve is also called the Freundlich isotherm curve.

The variation of extent of adsorption with pressure and temperature is given by the following curves.

→ Though Freundlich Isotherm correctly established the relationship of adsorption with pressure at lower values, it failed to predict value of adsorption at higher pressure.

This relation is called as the Freundlich adsorption isotherm.

→ Freundlich adsorption isotherm, is an empirical relation between the concentrations of a solute on the surface of an adsorbent to the concentration of the solute in the liquid with which it is in contact.

→ Hence, extend of adsorption increases with increased in pressure and decrease in temperature.

Explanation-

→ Bromine is the third-largest halogen and at room temperature, it appears as a fuming red-brown liquid.

→ The reaction of SO₂, Br₂, and H₂O, forming HBr and H₂SO₄, is one of the reactions of the hybrid cycle for the thermochemical decomposition of water.

→ When bromine water reacts with SO₂, it oxidizes it to sulphuric acid and itself gets reduced to HBr.

Br_2​ +  2H₂​O + SO_2​ → H_2​SO₄​ + 2HBr

 Important Points

• Bromine is a chemical element with the appearance of a deep red, the noxious liquid being one of the members of the halogen elements of the periodic table.
• This element has an appreciable vapor pressure at room temperature.
• The electron affinity of this metal is very high and much similar to chlorine.
• It is a less powerful oxidizing agent as compared to the chloride ion and that too because of the weaker hydration of the bromide ion.

Explanation-

Oxidation-

• Oxidation is a process that involves the addition of oxygen or any electronegative element or the removal of hydrogen or an electropositive element.
• According to the electronic concept, oxidation is defined as the process in which an atom or ion loses one or more electrons.
• Reduction-
• Reduction is a process that involves the addition of hydrogen or an electropositive element or the removal of oxygen or any electronegative element.
• According to the electronic concept, reduction is defined as the process in which an atom or ion gains one or more electrons.

Given data and analysis-

The given element is HF.

→ The tendency of an atom in a molecule to attract the shared pair of electrons towards itself is known as electronegativity.

→ Fluorine, being the most electronegative, size of it is very small. Therefore, it does not have a tendency to lose electrons. Hence, HF does not act as a reducing agent.

So it can not reduce anything from the options given above.

Explanation-

Electronic configuration -

→ The electronic configuration of an element is a symbolic notation of the manner in which the electrons of its atoms are distributed over different atomic orbitals.

→ While writing electron configurations, a standardized notation is followed in which the energy level and the type of orbital are written first, followed by the number of electrons present in the orbital written in superscript.

Xenon-

→ Xenon is a chemical element with the symbol Xe and atomic number 54 in the periodic table. William Ramsay discovered it in the year 1898.

→ [Kr]4d10 5s2 5p6 is the electronic configuration of Xenon.

 Important Points

Xenon is used in the following ways-

• It is also used in Stroboscopic lamps and photographic flashes.
• The element Xe acts as a natural anesthetic.
• The element is used in NMR spectroscopy.
• It is used to measure the flow of blood and also used to image the Brain, Heart, and Lungs.

Explanation:

The correct answer is option 1, i.e., [Cr(H2O)3(NH3)3]Cl3.

→The wrong formula is - [Cr(H2O)3(NH3)3]Cl3.

According to the IUPAC norms:

1. The central atom is listed first
2. Then ligands are listed in alphabetical order
3. The coordination entity is enclosed in a square bracket and the counter ion is written outside the coordination entity.

→ In the 1 option, the sequence of ligands is wrong.

→The correct chemical formula is - [Cr(NH3)3(H2O)3]Cl3.

Given below are IUPAC names of the coordination compounds:

→[Cr(H2O)3(NH3)3]Cl3 - Triamminetriaquachromium(III) chloride

→[Co(H2NCH2CH2NH2)3]2(SO4)3 - Tris(ethane-1,2-diammine)cobalt(III) sulphate

→[Ag(NH3)2][Ag(CN)2] - Diamminesilver(I) dicyanoargentate(I)

→[Pt(NH3)2Cl(NO2)] - Diamminechloridonitrito-N-platinum(II)

Explanation-

→ The electronegativity of the elements which are present in the periodic table is going to decrease when we are moving from top to bottom in the periodic table.

→ The oxidizing power of the elements also decreases while moving from top to bottom in the periodic table.

→ The amount of energy required to break a bond in a molecule is called bond dissociation energy.

Option 1- F2 > CL2 Br2 > I2 : Electronegativity

→ The electronegativity of the halogens is going to decrease as we are moving from top to bottom in the periodic table. so, option 1 is correct.

Option 2- F2 > CI2 > Br2 > I2 : Bond dissociation energy

→ The correct order of bond dissociation energy of the halogens is Cl₂ > Br₂ > F₂ > I₂

So option 2 is incoorect.

Option 3- F2 > CI2 > Br2 > I2 : Oxidising Power

→ It is correct because fluorine has high electronegativity so the oxidizing power of fluorine is high when compared to remaining halogens.

Option 4- HI > HBr > HCI > HF : Acidic property in water

→ The hydrogen halides are acidic in nature and the acidity of the hydrogen halides is going to decrease with an increase in electronegativity of the halogen.

→ It is also correct because the acidity of the hydrogen halides is going to decrease in the order of HI > HBr > HCl > HF.

Concept:

Co-ordination complexes and Ligands:

• A metal ion in a complex is surrounded by coordinating ligands anions or negative ends.
• An electric field is produced at the metal ion by the surrounding ligands.
• This electrostatic approach towards the interaction between metals and ligands is known as crystal field theory.
• CFT theory considers the ligands as point charges.
• There is no overlap between the ligand orbitals and metal ion orbitals.
• Ligands donate lone pair of electrons to the metal atoms and form 
• The ligands can be categorized into anionic, cationic, and neutral. The neutral ligands do not carry any charge.
• Some examples of ligands are:

Explanation:

• Sodium nitroprusside test is used to detect the thiol group -SH in compounds.
• It is a red-colored solution and it is octahedral in geometry.
• In presence of the thiol group, it changes the color to violet.

• In potassium nitroprusside Na2[Fe(CN)5NO], the anionic part containing the metal ion is [Fe(CN)5NO]2-.
• The metal ion is Iron, and the ligands are Nitrosonium NO+ and Cyanide CN-.
• The overall charge on the anion is -2, the charge of each Cyanide ion is -1Nitrosonium is +1.
• Total charge of 5 CN- = 5 × (-1) = -5
• Let the charge on Fe be 'x', then:

x + 5 × (-1) + 1 = -2 

or, x - 4 = -2

or, x = +2

• The oxidation state of Fe in sodium nitroprusside is '+2'.
• Hence, in sodium nitroprusside, Na2[Fe(CN)5 ON], NO+ is a ligand and oxidation state of Fe as +2.

Mistake Points

• NO ligand can be present as Nitrosyl (NO) which is neutral, Nitrosonium (NO+), which is positive, and Nitro (NO-) which is anionic.
• In sodium nitroprusside, however, it is experimentally seen that the complex contains Nitrosonium ligand NO+. 

Explanation:

→ [AlCl(H2O)5]Cl2 is an Aqua Complex Compound.

→ Hybridization → sp3d2 

→ Oxidation Number  → +3

Solvate Isomerism

• This form of isomerism is known as 'hydrate isomerism' in cases where water is involved as a solvent.
• This is similar to ionization isomerism. Solvate isomers differ by whether or not a solvent molecule is directly bonded to the metal ion or merely present as free solvent molecules in the crystal lattice.
• An example is provided by the aqua complex [Cr(H₂O₆]Cl₃)(violet) and its solvate isomer [(CrH₂O)₅ Cl]CI₂.H₂O (grey-green).

Concept:

• The element Nitrogen is the first member of group 15 or V A.
• Nitrogen is a typical non-metal. It is essential for both plants and animals.
• The electronic configuration of Nitrogen is 1s22s22p3.
• Nitrogen consists of mostly 78.1 % of the earth's atmosphere.
• Phosphorus is a group 15 or group V A element.
• It has an outer electronic configuration ns2np3.
• Phosphorus unlike Nitrogen exists in many forms such as red phosphorus, white phosphorus, etc, each of them having a different lattice structure.
• The elements N and P have five electrons in the outermost shell and are short of three electrons to complete its octet.

Explanation:

• In the compounds NCl₃ and PCl₃, three covalent bonds are formed that require three half-filled orbitals which are present in Nitrogen as well as phosphorus.
• For the formation of PCl₅, we require 5 half-filled orbitals.
• In the ground state of the P atom, there are only three half-filled orbitals present.
• When in the excited state, unpairing of electrons from 3s orbitals happens and electrons are promoted to 3d orbitals.
• Now 3d orbitals are also available for bonding.
• This makes the hybridization of the PCl₅ molecule to be sp³d.
• Availability of vacant d orbitals helps Phosphorus to expand its octet.

• However, no d orbital is available for Nitrogen and thus it cannot promote its 2s electrons to higher energy orbits.
• Only three orbitals are available for bonding and it cannot expand its octet. Hence NCl₅ is not possible.
• Hence, in the case of Nitrogen, NCl3 is possible but not NCl5, whereas in the case of P, PCl3, as well as PCl₅, is possible, because of the availability of vacant d orbital in P but not in N.

Additional Information

The structure of PCl₅ is

The structure of NCl₃ is pyramidal.

Explanation-

• Xenon is an atom in the modern periodic table having an atomic number as 54 with the symbol Xe.
• It is a noble gas found in trace amounts in the earth’s crust. It is generally unreactive but can undergo some chemical reactions to form some compounds.
• The three commonly known fluorides of xenon are XeF₂, XeF₄, and XeF₆. the three oxides known are XeO₃, XeO₄ and XeO₂.
• Xenon does not react with oxygen directly to give xenon oxides. Always xenon oxides are formed from the hydrolysis of xenon fluorides.
• The vice versa reaction would never be possible as the stability of reaction and reversibility matters.

Given data and Analysis-

Option 1: XeO3 + 6HF →  XeF6 + 3H2O

• The xenon fluorides are easily hydrolysed to give xenon oxides.
• But the vice versa reaction is impossible as xenon fluorides will again reverse the reaction to give xenon oxides. So this reaction is not feasible.

Option 2: 3XeF4 + 6H2O → 2Xe + XeO3 + 12HF +1.5O2

• The oxides of xenon are obtained from the other compounds of xenon i.e. xenon fluorides.
• Hydrolysis of xenon fluorides (XeF₄ or XeF₆) results in the formation of xenon oxides. Thus this reaction is feasible.

Option 3: 3XeF₂ + 2H2O → 2Xe + 4HF + O2

• All the Xenon fluorides are powerful fluorinating agents and can be readily hydrolyzed by the traces of water. Thus this reaction is feasible.

Option 4: XeF6 +RbF → Rb [XeF7]

• Xenon hexafluoride acts as a Lewis acid when bound to a fluoride ion.
• Thus, it would form a salt when added to rubidium fluoride to give a complex as rubidium heptafluoroxenonate.So this reaction is feasible.

Explanation-

• Germanium belongs to the 14th group of the periodic table which belongs to the Carbon family. Its atomic number is 32 and belongs to the 4th period of the table.
• The major property of this group is catenation which means they operate in the +4 oxidation states. Germanium and Silicon are both semi-conductors in this group.

Statement 1: Ge(OH)2 is amphoteric.

⇒ It is a true statement as the hydroxides of Germanium are all amphoteric and that too because it is a metalloid also. 

Statement 2: GeO2 is weakly acidic.

⇒This statement can be checked by reacting it with the water to see the product it yields.

GeO₂ + 2H₂O ⇒ H₄GeO₄

⇒This product is weakly acidic therefore, this statement is correct.

Statement 3: GeCl4 in HCl forms [GeCl6]2- ion.

⇒ Due to the presence of d -orbital in Ge it forms  [GeCl6]2- ion. when reacts with HCl.

⇒ So statement 3 is correct.

Statement 4: Si forms a stable complex of SiCl62- due to the presence of vacant d - Orbitals.

⇒ SiCl62- does not exist because six large chloride ions cannot be accommodated around Si⁴⁺ due to the limitation of its size.

⇒ So statement 4 is incorrect.

The correct answer increases.

Key Points

• Electron affinity is defined as the change in energy (in kJ/mole) of a neutral atom (in the gaseous phase) when an electron is added to the atom to form a negative ion.
  • In other words, the neutral atom's likelihood of gaining an electron. 
  • Electron affinity increases upward for the groups and from left to right across periods of a periodic table because the electrons added to energy levels become closer to the nucleus, thus a stronger attraction between the nucleus and its electrons.

Additional Information

• Ionization energy generally increases moving from left to right across an element period (row).
  • This is because the atomic radius generally decreases moving across a period, so there is a greater effective attraction between the negatively charged electrons and the positively-charged nucleus.
• The atomic radii of elements vary in the periodic table in a fixed pattern.
  • We can explain this trend by considering the nuclear charge and energy level. In general, the atomic radius decreases as we move from left to right in a period and it increases when we go down a group.

Explanation:-

⇒ When phenol releases a proton it is converted into a phenoxide ion and when ethanol releases a proton it is converted into an ethoxide ion.

⇒ The acidity of phenol or ethanol will depend upon the stability of their conjugate bases means the acidic strength of phenol will depend on the stability of the phenoxide ion and the acidic strength of ethanol will depend on the stability of the ethoxide ion.

⇒ Phenoxide ion is stabilised because of resonance.

⇒ As phenoxide ion is stable phenol has more tendency to release proton and convert into phenoxide ion whereas there is no such resonance stabilization in ethoxide ion form.

⇒ As phenol is more stable than ethanol ,phenol is more acidic than ethanol.

Explanation:-

The Acidity of Organic Compounds:-

• The organic compounds that carry charges in them and that are unstable with the presence of one or more lone pairs of electrons are said to be more acidic in nature.
• The more property of induction is shown by the organic compounds are more acidic in nature.
• Organic compounds that have more resonance are more acidic.
• The qualitative analysis compares structural stability to determine which is a stronger acid.
• The more effectively a reaction product can stabilize its formal charge, the more the equilibrium will favour that product.

Stability of a compound:-

• The Gibbs energy of decomposition, G_d, of a material is defined as the Gibbs formation energy, G_f, of the given material relative to all other compounds in the relevant chemical space.
• The energy of sublimation, the lattice energy, and the solvation energy all play a role in the stability of the compounds.

Acidity increases with increasing positive charge on an atom

Concept:-

Therefore,  is most acidic in nature due to greater resonance and less stability.

Concept:

The acidity of compounds:

• The acidity of compounds is determined by their ability to donate hydrogen ions in solution.
• The greater the ease of donation or liberation of the hydrogen ions, the stronger is the acid.
• The acidic proton of the compound is generally attached to an electronegative atom.
• The strength of the acidity is greatly influenced by the substituents or groups attached.
• The strength of an acid is measured by its pKa value. Lower the pKa, stronger is the acid.

Factors influencing the acid strength-

• Inorganic acids are much stronger than Organic acids.
• The stability of the conjugate base-
  • if the negative charge is resonance stabilized in the conjugate base, then the compound is more acidic compared to the compound whose conjugate base has the charge localized.
• Electronegative substituents or groups like F, Cl, Br, I increase the acidity via inductive electron withdrawal (-I).
• Electron donating groups such as - OR, -Me, etc. decrease the acidity via the +R and +I effect.
• Electron withdrawing groups such as NO2,-CF3, -COOH, -CN increases the acidity via the –R effect.
• Hydrogen attached to sp2 Carbon is more acidic than hydrogen attached to sp3 carbon.
• The acidity order is sp> sp2>sp3.

Explanation:

• ​Electron withdrawing groups increases the acidity of the compounds whereas electron releasing group decreases the acidity of compounds.
• In p-methoxy benzoic acid, the electron-donating group -OMe is present.

• The presence of -OCH₃ group makes it a weaker acid than benzoic acid.
• In p-chlorobenzoic acid, there is the presence of electron-withdrawing group Cl, which increases the acidity.
• Hence, p-chlorobenzoic acid is a stronger acid than benzoic acid.
• In p-aminobenzoic acid, the electron-donating amino group is present, so it is a weaker acid than benzoic acid.
• p-toluic acid has an electron-donating group -CH₃, so it will also be weaker than benzoic acid.

Hence, the strongest acid among the following is p-chlorobenzoic acid.

Important Points

• Ortho substituted benzoic acids are stronger acids than benzoic acid due to ortho effect.

Concept:

• Alkanes react with halogens in presence of Ultraviolet light or at temperatures between 520 - 670K.
• For example, when methane is treated with chlorine in diffused sunlight, a mixture of four different derivatives is obtained.

Explanation:

​The reaction of bromine with ethane takes place as follows:

C2H6 (excess) + Br2 (excess) → 

The number of products formed are thus 9.

Additional Information

• The reaction takes place via a free radical mechanism.
• The rate of reactivity of alkanes towards halogenation re tertiary > secondary> primary.
• The reactivity of halogens towards the same alkane is: Fluorination > chlorination > bromination.

Explanation:-

Condensation:-

• Condensation is a chemical reaction in which two molecules are combined to form a single complex molecule.
• It takes place with the loss of some water.
• The loss of water is linked with the condensation reaction of a given molecule it is called dehydration.

Condensation of hexamethylenediamine and adipic acid:-

• It is a condensation polymerization reaction of hexamethylenediamine and adipic acid.
• It is the process of formation of Nylon 6,6.
• It forms nylon salt by removing water molecules.

Nylon 6,6:- 

• Nylon 6,6 is a polymer.
• It is an amorphous solid with a density of 1.07 g/cm³ at 25 ºC.
• It is slightly soluble in water.
• Nylon 6,6 is used for airbags, tires, rope, conveyor belts and hoses.
• It is light material so it is suitable to be used for parachutes.
• It is a waterproof material so, it is used to make swimmers also.
• It is also resistant to water, so it is used to make parts for machines. 

Explanation:

• Chlorotoluenes can be obtained by passing dry chlorine through toluene using iron or ferric chloride as catalyst.
• The substitution products are ortho and para as methyl is an Electron releasing group.
• The temperature of the reaction is about 310 -320K.
• I₂ or AlCl₃ can also be used as a halogen carrier.
• The function of FeCl₃ is to generate Cl⁺ which then attacks the benzene ring to form an intermediate carbocation. 
• The carbocation then loses a proton to form Chlorotoluene.
• Formation of the intermediate carbocation is the slow rate-determining step and the halogenation of toluene is an example of electrophilic substitution reaction.
• The reaction should be carried in absence of light to prevent the formation of addition products.
• The net reaction is:

The products formed are ortho and para chloro toluenes.

Explanation:-

Nitration:-

• The nitro groups are added to the benzene ring by a chemical reaction known as nitration.
• The nitration reaction uses nitronium ion (NO2+) as an electrophile.
• The sources of the ion for the reaction to take place is diluted or concentrated HNO3, the mixture of HNO3 and concentrated H2SO4 etc.
• The nitronium ion is a very strong electrophile because it has only one resonance with a positive charge mostly on the nitrogen atom.
• The calculated bond order of NO is 1.84 which is close to a double bond.
• The nitrogen atom almost bears a full positive charge.

Nitration of Aniline:-

• Nitration of aniline with a strong acid reduces it to an anillium ion.
• The anillium ion withdraws electron density.
• Its effect is maximum at the ortho followed by meta and then para position.

Explanation:-

Difference between o-Cresol and 1-Phenyletnanol:

• The chemical compound ortho-Cresol, commonly known as 2-methyl phenol or 2-hydroxytoluene.
• It has the formula CH3C6H4 (OH).
• It's a colourless solid that's utilised as a catalyst in the manufacture of other compounds.
• It's a phenol derivative and an isomer of p-cresol and m-cresol.
• The organic compound 1-phenyl ethanol has the formula C6H5CH(OH)CH3.
• It's one of the most prevalent chiral alcohols on the market.
• It's a clear liquid with a light gardenia-hyacinth fragrance.
• One of the chemical components present in castoreum is o-Cresol.
• This substance comes from the beaver's castor glands and is present in the white cedar that the beaver eats.
• 1-Phenylethanol is discovered as a glycoside in tea (Camellia sinensis) blossoms, along with its hydrolase -primeverosidase. 
• Cranberries, grapes, chives, Scottish spearmint oil, cheeses, cognac, rum, white wine, chocolate, black tea, filbert, cloudberries, beans, mushrooms, and endives are all said to contain it.

Important Points

Neutral FeCl₃ Solution:

• To test for the presence of phenols, a neutral ferric chloride solution is produced.
• To make a neutral ferric chloride solution, first, add ammonium hydroxide solution to FeCl3 to produce a precipitate, then add FeCl3 solution again to dissolve the precipitation.

Iodoform Test:

• The iodoform test is used to determine whether a given unknown chemical contains carbonyl compounds with the structure R-CO-CH3 or alcohols with the structure R-CH(OH)-CH3.
• Iodine, a base, and a methyl ketone react to produce a yellow precipitate with an "antiseptic" odour.

Explanation:-

Pyran:-  

• Pyran is the class of organic compounds which have five carbon atoms and one oxygen atom present in a ring structure.
• They are a series of heterocyclic compounds.
• Pyran is also known as oxine.
• Pyran derivatives constitute a useful class of heterocyclic compounds.
• Tetrahydropyrans were synthesized by the readily available alpha-ketoglutaric acid as a precursor.
• The formula of pyran is C₅H₆O.
• Pyran does not have conjugated double bonds and it has four pi-binding electrons.

Concept:

Superimpossibility of images-

• Two images are said to be superimposable on each other if their corresponding parts coincide when one is placed upon the other. 
• If they do not coincide, then they are called non-superimposable on its mirror image.

Optical isomerism:

• When two isomers rotate plane polarised light in different directions, then they are known as optical isomers.
• The phenomenon is known as optical isomerism.

​​Criteria to show optical isomerism-

• Absence of centre of Symmetry - when a line is drawn from the centre of a molecule towards the corner of each atom, it should not encounter similar atoms.
• Absence of plane of symmetry - A real or imaginary plane, vertical or horizontal when passed through a molecule, bisects it so that the one half of the molecule should not be the mirror image of the other half.
• The presence of a Chiral centre - An object or molecule which has no plane of symmetry and is not superimposable on its mirror image is said to be chiral or dissymmetric.

Explanation:

• Propanoic acid has the following structure:

• On evaluating the structure, we see that there is no chiral carbon atom present. Hence, propanoic acid is not optically active.
• When we observe the structure of lactic acid, we see that it is attached to four different functional groups and has a chiral carbon.
• Also, there are no elements of symmetry, so Lactic acid shows optical activity. It is present as D and L isomers.

• Malonic acid is symmetrical and thus not chiral.

• CH3CO.COOH also does not have any chiral carbon atom, so it is not chiral.
• Hence, the molecule which is optically active is CH3CHOHCOOH.

Explanation-

Williamson synthesis-

• The general method for the synthesis of ether is Williamson ether synthesis, which involves nucleophilic displacement of a halide ion or other good leaving group by an alkoxide ion.

The basic mechanism of the reaction is:

$R-O^{-}+R^{\prime }-X\to R-O-R^{\prime }+X^{-}$

⇒ Alkoxide ions are good nucleophiles and displace halide ions from alkyl halides resulting in the formation of a new carbon-oxygen bond.

⇒ Alkoxides are produced by the treatment of alcohols with either a base or an alkali metal.

⇒ Tertiary alkyl halides or sterically hindered primary or secondary alkyl halides tend to undergo E₂ elimination in the presence of the alkoxide that in addition to being a nucleophile also acts as a base.

  Allyl bromide (CH₂ = CH−CH₂−Br) 

⇒ Which is 1^o alkyl halide and the end product is stable so this is the most reactive alkyl halide.

Concept:

⇒ Acetal formation is nucleophilic addition reaction due to the addition of alcohols on aldehydes.

The reactivity of nucleophilic addition depends on following two factors.

⇒ Inductive effect: Greater the number of alkyl group attached to carbonyl group, greater is the electron density on carbonyl carbon. Thus, lower the attack of nucleophile. Hence, reactivity decreases.

⇒ Steric effect: As the number of alkyl group attached to carbonyl carbon increases, the attack of nucleophile on carbonyl group becomes more difficult due to steric hindrance.

Thus, the best combination is HCHO and MeOH. The reaction is as follows:

Concept:

• Alkyl benzenes when treated with  KMnO4, undergo oxidation to give benzoic acid.
• The KMnO₄ acts as an oxidizing agent.
• Oxidation Reaction refers to a reaction in which either the addition of Oxygen takes place or the removal of Hydrogen takes place.
• The criteria for undergoing this reaction is that the benzyl carbon must have a hydrogen atom.

​

Explanation:

• The reaction proceeds via free radical formation.
• The manganate ion extracts one hydrogen atom and gives a carbon-free radical. The mechanism gets complicated after that.

​

The ultimate product is benzoic acid. The net reaction is:

Hence, Ethyl benzene on oxidation by KMnO4 forms Benzoic acid.

The correct answer is option 2.

Key Points

• ​Antibiotics are medicines used to prevent and treat bacterial infections.
• Antibiotic resistance occurs when bacteria change in response to the use of these medicines.
• The bacteria, not humans or animals, become antibiotic-resistant.
  • These bacteria may infect humans and animals, and the infections they cause are harder to treat than those caused by non-resistant bacteria.
• Antibiotic resistance is one of the biggest threats to global health, food security, and development today.
• Antibiotic resistance can affect anyone, of any age, in any country.
• Antibiotic resistance occurs naturally, but misuse of antibiotics in humans and animals is accelerating the process. Hence, Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not correct explanation of (A).
• A growing list of infections such as pneumonia, tuberculosis, blood poisoning, gonorrhoea, and foodborne diseases are becoming harder, and sometimes impossible, to treat as antibiotics become less effective.​ 
• Antibiotic resistance leads to higher medical costs, prolonged hospital stays, and increased mortality.
• The world urgently needs to change the way it prescribes and uses antibiotics.
  • Even if new medicines are developed, without behaviour change, antibiotic resistance will remain a major threat.
  • Behaviour changes must also include actions to reduce the spread of infections through vaccination, hand washing, practising safer sex, and good food hygiene.
• Antibiotic resistance is rising to dangerously high levels in all parts of the world.

Concept:

From the given reaction, the reactant isocyanide benzyl carbonyl compound involves in the first step which undergoes the carbylamine reaction.

• The carbylamine reaction, also known as Hoffman's isocyanide test is a chemical test for the detection of primary amines.
• In this reaction, the analyte is heated with alcoholic potassium hydroxide and chloroform. If a primary amine is present, the isocyanide (carbylamine) is formed which is a foul-smelling substance. The base OH negative attracts the hydrogen and the carbon bond moves towards the chlorine and produces the intermediate product of water, chlorine, and carbine.
• Benzene ring with cyanide group and ketone group and carbine react to produce the final product Benzene ring and isocyanide.
• Benzene with iso-cyanide and carbonyl group reacts in the presence of hydrogen and palladium thus the alcohol group is reduced, and finally iso-cyanide group is reduced to the final product.

Concept:

• When aldehydes and ketones having α hydrogen atoms are treated with dilute alkali, two molecules of the carbonyl compound undergo condensation.
• The product is β hydroxy aldehyde known as aldol or ketone.
• This reaction is called aldol condensation.
• The term aldol is derived from the combination of two words aldehyde and alcohol, the two functional groups present in the product.
• The products of aldol condensation when treated with dilute acids undergo dehydration leading to the formation of alpha, beta-unsaturated aldehydes, and ketones.
• Aldehydes not having alpha hydrogen fail to give aldol condensation.

Explanation:

• The aldol condensation takes place via a carbanion formation with the loss of α hydrogen.
• The aldol of acetaldehyde is intermolecular aldol and requires two molecules of acetaldehyde.
• The reaction is:

• The product formed is 3 hydroxy butanal. On further dehydration, it will form Crotonaldehyde.

Hence, the aldol condensation of acetaldehyde results in the formation of 

.

Additional Information

• Formaldehyde, benzaldehyde do not undergo aldol condensation. 

Concept:

Electrophilic Substitution:

• Benzene and other aromatic compounds show characteristic electrophilic substitution reactions.
• In this reaction, a hydrogen atom of the aromatic ring is substituted by an electrophile.
• The substitution takes place by addition- elimination mechanism.

Electrophilic Addition reaction:

• The addition of an electrophile to a double bond is an example of an addition reaction.
• Alkenes react with a solution of halogen and water to form halohydrins.
• The reaction takes place following Markownikoff's rule which states that: 'In an electrophilic addition reaction of an unsymmetrical alkene with an unsymmetrical addendum (reagent), the positive part of the addendum adds to the less substituted carbon and the negative part adds to the more substituted carbon of the alkene.

Nucleophilic substitution reactions-

• Substitution reactions are the types of reactions where a nucleophile is the attacking reagents.
• There are three types of substitution reactions depending on the nature of the substrate.
  • Nucleophilic substitution at saturated carbon. 
  • Nucleophilic acyl substitution
  • Nucleophilic aromatic substitution.

​Nucleophilic Addition:

• In this type of reaction, the nucleophile is added to a substrate containing an electrophilic centre such as a double or a triple bond.
• The nucleophile gets added to the electrophilic centre and the double or the triple bond is broken in the process.

Explanation:

• Aldehydes and ketones undergo the following types of reactions:
  • Nucleophilic addition reactions
  • Nucleophilic addition reaction followed by elimination of water molecule
  • Oxidation reaction
  • Reduction reaction
• Hydrogen cyanide adds to the aldehydes and ketones to give cyanohydrins which are alpha-cyano alcohols.
• The reaction occurs via an attack of the nucleophile CN^-  on the carbonyl centre of the aldehydes and ketones and is a nucleophilic addition reaction.
• The reaction occurs in presence of a base. the reaction is:

Hence, the formation of cyanohydrin is a nucleophilic addition reaction.

Important Points

• The reaction cannot proceed in the absence of a base because HCN doesn't have a lone pair of electrons.
• In presence of bases such as Hydroxyl ions, it produces Cyanide ions and thus acts as a nucleophile.

Explanation:

Galvanization

• The process of putting a protective zinc coating to iron to prevent rusting is known as galvanization.
• It extends the life of iron parts by establishing a membrane between the metal and the air, which prevents iron oxide from developing on its layer.
• Galvanization also provides greater corrosion protection to parts that are exposed to air.
• Galvanizing protects against rust and corrosion in several ways:

1. It acts as a barrier, preventing corrosive chemicals from reaching the iron beneath.
2. The zinc acts as a sacrificial anode, meaning that even if the coating is damaged, the exposed steel is still protected by the zinc that remains on it.
3. The zinc surface reacts with the environment to generate a dense, adhering patina that is impervious to moisture.

The correct answer is Sodium bicarbonate.

Key Points

• Sodium bicarbonate is most often used in the food industry as a chemical leavening agent in baked foods such as cakes, muffins and cookies.
• Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) is known as baking soda.
• It is a white-coloured salt of Sodium.
• Also known as Sodium hydrogen carbonate.

Important Points

• BAKING SODA:
  • As the name suggests it is used in baking certain products like cakes, muffins, and cookies. etc.
  • In baking, it is used as a chemical leavening agent which produces carbon dioxide in reaction to an acid (like vinegar).
  • Carbon dioxide produces bubbles that help the cake or cookie rise to tender, moist, and fluffy perfection.
  • It is basic or alkaline in nature.
  • It is a popular antacid for heartburn and indigestion because it can neutralize stomach acid.
  • Baking soda becomes activated when it's combined with both an acidic ingredient and a liquid.

Additional Information

• Calcium Oxychloride:
  • ​Bleaching powder chemical name is Calcium oxychloride or Calcium hypochlorite.
  • Its chemical formulae are CaOCl₂.
  • Bleaching powder is used as a disinfectant.
• Sodium Sulphate:​
  • The formula for sodium is – Na+, and Sulphate is – SO42-.
    • ​So, the formula for Sodium Sulphate is – Na₂SO₄.
  • Sodium sulfate is used to dry organic liquids. As a filler in powdered home laundry detergents. 
  • Na₂SO₄ is used in manufactured paper, glass, dyes, and pharmaceuticals.
  • It is often used in its decahydrate form, which is also known as Glauber's salt.
    • It is also called salt cake.  
• Sodium Chloride:​
  • ​Sodium chloride, is commonly known as salt.
  • It is an ionic compound with the chemical formula NaCl,
    • NaCl represents a 1:1 ratio of sodium and chloride ions.

Explanation:

• Cyclohexanone reacts with diazomethane to produce cycloheptanone.
• The reaction is a ring expansion reaction.
• The reaction takes place with diazomethane in an ether medium.
• The net reaction is:

• The reaction mechanism is:

• There is a sigma bond migration and liberation of nitrogen.

Hence, cyclohexanone reacts with diazomethane to produce cycloheptanone.​

Additional Information

• The other reactions of diazomethane are:

​ 

Explanation-

• Ethers are classified as simple or symmetrical, if the alkyl or aryl groups attached to the oxygen atom are the same, and mixed or unsymmetrical if the two groups are different.
• Diethyl ether, C₂H₅OC₂H₅ , is a symmetrical ether whereas C₂H₅OCH₃ and C₂H₅OC₆H₅ are unsymmetrical ethers.

Option 1: Ether are weakly polar compounds.

⇒The presence of an electronegative oxygen atom gives ethers a small dipole moment. So Ethers are weakly polar compounds.

So option 1 is correct.

Option 2: Ethers have lower boiling points than the isomeric alcohols

⇒ Ethers ROR cannot form intermolecular Hydrogen bonds due to the absence of H attached with the electronegative atom as N/O/F, but in the case of alcohols, they have -OH which can undergo intermolecular hydrogen bonding and that increases their boiling point.